Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview of current clinical trials.
Identifieur interne : 000F20 ( Main/Exploration ); précédent : 000F19; suivant : 000F21Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview of current clinical trials.
Auteurs : Fatemeh Oroojalian [Iran] ; Ali Haghbin [Iran] ; Behzad Baradaran [Iran] ; Nima Hemmat [Iran] ; Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi [Iran] ; Hossein Bannazadeh Baghi [Iran] ; Ahad Mokhtarzadeh [Iran] ; Michael R. Hamblin [Afrique du Sud]Source :
- International journal of biological macromolecules [ 1879-0003 ] ; 2020.
Descripteurs français
- KwdFr :
- MESH :
- immunologie : Vaccins antiviraux.
- usage thérapeutique : Antiviraux.
- Essais cliniques comme sujet, Humains.
English descriptors
- KwdEn :
- MESH :
- chemical , immunology : Viral Vaccines.
- chemical , therapeutic use : Antiviral Agents.
- drug effects : SARS-CoV-2.
- drug therapy : COVID-19.
- immunology : COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2.
- physiology : SARS-CoV-2.
- therapy : COVID-19.
- Clinical Trials as Topic, Humans.
Abstract
The emergence of the global pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has motivated scientists to find a definitive treatment or a vaccine against it in the shortest possible time. Current efforts towards this goal remain fruitless without a full understanding of the behavior of the virus and its adaptor proteins. This review provides an overview of the biological properties, functional mechanisms, and molecular components of SARS-CoV-2, along with investigational therapeutic and preventive approaches for this virus. Since the proteolytic cleavage of the S protein is critical for virus penetration into cells, a set of drugs, such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, camostat mesylate have been tested in clinical trials to suppress this event. In addition to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the role of CD147 in the viral entrance has also been proposed. Mepolizumab has shown to be effective in blocking the virus's cellular entrance. Antiviral drugs, such as remdesivir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, darunavir, lopinavir, zanamivir, peramivir, and oseltamivir, have also been tested as treatments for COVID-19. Regarding preventive vaccines, the whole virus, vectors, nucleic acids, and structural subunits have been suggested for vaccine development. Mesenchymal stem cells and natural killer cells could also be used against SARS-CoV-2. All the above-mentioned strategies, as well as the role of nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, have been discussed in this review.
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.204
PubMed: 32991900
PubMed Central: PMC7521454
Affiliations:
Links toward previous steps (curation, corpus...)
Le document en format XML
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Electronic address: mokhtarzadehah@tbzmed.ac.ir.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tabriz</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hamblin, Michael R" sort="Hamblin, Michael R" uniqKey="Hamblin M" first="Michael R" last="Hamblin">Michael R. Hamblin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa. Electronic address: hamblin@helix.mgh.harvard.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Doornfontein 2028</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></titleStmt><publicationStmt><idno type="wicri:source">PubMed</idno><date when="2020">2020</date><idno type="RBID">pubmed:32991900</idno><idno type="pmid">32991900</idno><idno type="doi">10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.204</idno><idno type="pmc">PMC7521454</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Main/Corpus">000B29</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Main" wicri:step="Corpus" wicri:corpus="PubMed">000B29</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Main/Curation">000B29</idno><idno type="wicri:explorRef" wicri:stream="Main" wicri:step="Curation">000B29</idno><idno type="wicri:Area/Main/Exploration">000B29</idno></publicationStmt><sourceDesc><biblStruct><analytic><title xml:lang="en">Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview of current clinical trials.</title><author><name sortKey="Oroojalian, Fatemeh" sort="Oroojalian, Fatemeh" uniqKey="Oroojalian F" first="Fatemeh" last="Oroojalian">Fatemeh Oroojalian</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Bojnurd</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Haghbin, Ali" sort="Haghbin, Ali" uniqKey="Haghbin A" first="Ali" last="Haghbin">Ali Haghbin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Bojnurd</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Baradaran, Behzad" sort="Baradaran, Behzad" uniqKey="Baradaran B" first="Behzad" last="Baradaran">Behzad Baradaran</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tabriz</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hemmat, Nima" sort="Hemmat, Nima" uniqKey="Hemmat N" first="Nima" last="Hemmat">Nima Hemmat</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tabriz</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Shahbazi, Mohammad Ali" sort="Shahbazi, Mohammad Ali" uniqKey="Shahbazi M" first="Mohammad-Ali" last="Shahbazi">Mohammad-Ali Shahbazi</name><affiliation wicri:level="4"><nlm:affiliation>Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan</wicri:regionArea><orgName type="university">Université d'Helsinki</orgName><placeName><settlement type="city">Helsinki</settlement><region type="région" nuts="2">Uusimaa</region></placeName></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Baghi, Hossein Bannazadeh" sort="Baghi, Hossein Bannazadeh" uniqKey="Baghi H" first="Hossein Bannazadeh" last="Baghi">Hossein Bannazadeh Baghi</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tabriz</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Mokhtarzadeh, Ahad" sort="Mokhtarzadeh, Ahad" uniqKey="Mokhtarzadeh A" first="Ahad" last="Mokhtarzadeh">Ahad Mokhtarzadeh</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran. Electronic address: mokhtarzadehah@tbzmed.ac.ir.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Iran</country><wicri:regionArea>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Tabriz</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author><author><name sortKey="Hamblin, Michael R" sort="Hamblin, Michael R" uniqKey="Hamblin M" first="Michael R" last="Hamblin">Michael R. Hamblin</name><affiliation wicri:level="1"><nlm:affiliation>Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa. Electronic address: hamblin@helix.mgh.harvard.edu.</nlm:affiliation><country xml:lang="fr">Afrique du Sud</country><wicri:regionArea>Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028</wicri:regionArea><wicri:noRegion>Doornfontein 2028</wicri:noRegion></affiliation></author></analytic><series><title level="j">International journal of biological macromolecules</title><idno type="eISSN">1879-0003</idno><imprint><date when="2020" type="published">2020</date></imprint></series></biblStruct></sourceDesc></fileDesc><profileDesc><textClass><keywords scheme="KwdEn" xml:lang="en"><term>Antiviral Agents (therapeutic use)</term><term>COVID-19 (drug therapy)</term><term>COVID-19 (immunology)</term><term>COVID-19 (therapy)</term><term>Clinical Trials as Topic (MeSH)</term><term>Humans (MeSH)</term><term>SARS-CoV-2 (drug effects)</term><term>SARS-CoV-2 (immunology)</term><term>SARS-CoV-2 (physiology)</term><term>Viral Vaccines (immunology)</term></keywords><keywords scheme="KwdFr" xml:lang="fr"><term>Antiviraux (usage thérapeutique)</term><term>Essais cliniques comme sujet (MeSH)</term><term>Humains (MeSH)</term><term>Vaccins antiviraux (immunologie)</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" type="chemical" qualifier="immunology" xml:lang="en"><term>Viral Vaccines</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" type="chemical" qualifier="therapeutic use" xml:lang="en"><term>Antiviral Agents</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="drug effects" xml:lang="en"><term>SARS-CoV-2</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="drug therapy" xml:lang="en"><term>COVID-19</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="immunologie" xml:lang="fr"><term>Vaccins antiviraux</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="immunology" xml:lang="en"><term>COVID-19</term><term>SARS-CoV-2</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="physiology" xml:lang="en"><term>SARS-CoV-2</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="therapy" xml:lang="en"><term>COVID-19</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" qualifier="usage thérapeutique" xml:lang="fr"><term>Antiviraux</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="en"><term>Clinical Trials as Topic</term><term>Humans</term></keywords><keywords scheme="MESH" xml:lang="fr"><term>Essais cliniques comme sujet</term><term>Humains</term></keywords></textClass></profileDesc></teiHeader><front><div type="abstract" xml:lang="en">The emergence of the global pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has motivated scientists to find a definitive treatment or a vaccine against it in the shortest possible time. Current efforts towards this goal remain fruitless without a full understanding of the behavior of the virus and its adaptor proteins. This review provides an overview of the biological properties, functional mechanisms, and molecular components of SARS-CoV-2, along with investigational therapeutic and preventive approaches for this virus. Since the proteolytic cleavage of the S protein is critical for virus penetration into cells, a set of drugs, such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, camostat mesylate have been tested in clinical trials to suppress this event. In addition to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the role of CD147 in the viral entrance has also been proposed. Mepolizumab has shown to be effective in blocking the virus's cellular entrance. Antiviral drugs, such as remdesivir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, darunavir, lopinavir, zanamivir, peramivir, and oseltamivir, have also been tested as treatments for COVID-19. Regarding preventive vaccines, the whole virus, vectors, nucleic acids, and structural subunits have been suggested for vaccine development. Mesenchymal stem cells and natural killer cells could also be used against SARS-CoV-2. All the above-mentioned strategies, as well as the role of nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, have been discussed in this review.</div></front></TEI><pubmed><MedlineCitation Status="MEDLINE" Owner="NLM"><PMID Version="1">32991900</PMID><DateCompleted><Year>2020</Year><Month>12</Month><Day>17</Day></DateCompleted><DateRevised><Year>2021</Year><Month>05</Month><Day>14</Day></DateRevised><Article PubModel="Print-Electronic"><Journal><ISSN IssnType="Electronic">1879-0003</ISSN><JournalIssue CitedMedium="Internet"><Volume>165</Volume><Issue>Pt A</Issue><PubDate><Year>2020</Year><Month>Dec</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></JournalIssue><Title>International journal of biological macromolecules</Title><ISOAbbreviation>Int J Biol Macromol</ISOAbbreviation></Journal><ArticleTitle>Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview of current clinical trials.</ArticleTitle><Pagination><MedlinePgn>18-43</MedlinePgn></Pagination><ELocationID EIdType="pii" ValidYN="Y">S0141-8130(20)34564-5</ELocationID><ELocationID EIdType="doi" ValidYN="Y">10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.204</ELocationID><Abstract><AbstractText>The emergence of the global pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has motivated scientists to find a definitive treatment or a vaccine against it in the shortest possible time. Current efforts towards this goal remain fruitless without a full understanding of the behavior of the virus and its adaptor proteins. This review provides an overview of the biological properties, functional mechanisms, and molecular components of SARS-CoV-2, along with investigational therapeutic and preventive approaches for this virus. Since the proteolytic cleavage of the S protein is critical for virus penetration into cells, a set of drugs, such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, camostat mesylate have been tested in clinical trials to suppress this event. In addition to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the role of CD147 in the viral entrance has also been proposed. Mepolizumab has shown to be effective in blocking the virus's cellular entrance. Antiviral drugs, such as remdesivir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, darunavir, lopinavir, zanamivir, peramivir, and oseltamivir, have also been tested as treatments for COVID-19. Regarding preventive vaccines, the whole virus, vectors, nucleic acids, and structural subunits have been suggested for vaccine development. Mesenchymal stem cells and natural killer cells could also be used against SARS-CoV-2. All the above-mentioned strategies, as well as the role of nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, have been discussed in this review.</AbstractText><CopyrightInformation>Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.</CopyrightInformation></Abstract><AuthorList CompleteYN="Y"><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Oroojalian</LastName><ForeName>Fatemeh</ForeName><Initials>F</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Haghbin</LastName><ForeName>Ali</ForeName><Initials>A</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran; Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Baradaran</LastName><ForeName>Behzad</ForeName><Initials>B</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Hemmat</LastName><ForeName>Nima</ForeName><Initials>N</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Shahbazi</LastName><ForeName>Mohammad-Ali</ForeName><Initials>MA</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Baghi</LastName><ForeName>Hossein Bannazadeh</ForeName><Initials>HB</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Mokhtarzadeh</LastName><ForeName>Ahad</ForeName><Initials>A</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran. Electronic address: mokhtarzadehah@tbzmed.ac.ir.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author><Author ValidYN="Y"><LastName>Hamblin</LastName><ForeName>Michael R</ForeName><Initials>MR</Initials><AffiliationInfo><Affiliation>Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa. Electronic address: hamblin@helix.mgh.harvard.edu.</Affiliation></AffiliationInfo></Author></AuthorList><Language>eng</Language><GrantList CompleteYN="Y"><Grant><GrantID>R01 AI050875</GrantID><Acronym>AI</Acronym><Agency>NIAID NIH HHS</Agency><Country>United States</Country></Grant><Grant><GrantID>R21 AI121700</GrantID><Acronym>AI</Acronym><Agency>NIAID NIH HHS</Agency><Country>United States</Country></Grant></GrantList><PublicationTypeList><PublicationType UI="D016428">Journal Article</PublicationType><PublicationType UI="D016454">Review</PublicationType></PublicationTypeList><ArticleDate DateType="Electronic"><Year>2020</Year><Month>09</Month><Day>28</Day></ArticleDate></Article><MedlineJournalInfo><Country>Netherlands</Country><MedlineTA>Int J Biol Macromol</MedlineTA><NlmUniqueID>7909578</NlmUniqueID><ISSNLinking>0141-8130</ISSNLinking></MedlineJournalInfo><ChemicalList><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D000998">Antiviral Agents</NameOfSubstance></Chemical><Chemical><RegistryNumber>0</RegistryNumber><NameOfSubstance UI="D014765">Viral Vaccines</NameOfSubstance></Chemical></ChemicalList><CitationSubset>IM</CitationSubset><MeshHeadingList><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D000998" MajorTopicYN="N">Antiviral Agents</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000627" MajorTopicYN="N">therapeutic use</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D000086382" MajorTopicYN="N">COVID-19</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000188" MajorTopicYN="N">drug therapy</QualifierName><QualifierName UI="Q000276" MajorTopicYN="N">immunology</QualifierName><QualifierName UI="Q000628" MajorTopicYN="Y">therapy</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D002986" MajorTopicYN="Y">Clinical Trials as Topic</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D006801" MajorTopicYN="N">Humans</DescriptorName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D000086402" MajorTopicYN="N">SARS-CoV-2</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000187" MajorTopicYN="N">drug effects</QualifierName><QualifierName UI="Q000276" MajorTopicYN="N">immunology</QualifierName><QualifierName UI="Q000502" MajorTopicYN="N">physiology</QualifierName></MeshHeading><MeshHeading><DescriptorName UI="D014765" MajorTopicYN="N">Viral Vaccines</DescriptorName><QualifierName UI="Q000276" MajorTopicYN="N">immunology</QualifierName></MeshHeading></MeshHeadingList><KeywordList Owner="NOTNLM"><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">COVID-19</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Global pandemic</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Investigational drugs</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">SARS-CoV-2</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Vaccine development</Keyword><Keyword MajorTopicYN="N">Virus mechanism</Keyword></KeywordList><CoiStatement>Declaration of competing interest MRH declares the following potential conflicts of interest. Scientific Advisory Boards: Transdermal Cap Inc., Cleveland, OH; BeWell Global Inc., Wan Chai, Hong Kong; Hologenix Inc. Santa Monica, CA; LumiThera Inc., Poulsbo, WA; Vielight, Toronto, Canada; Bright Photomedicine, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Quantum Dynamics LLC, Cambridge, MA; Global Photon Inc., Bee Cave, TX; Medical Coherence, Boston MA; NeuroThera, Newark DE; JOOVV Inc., Minneapolis-St. Paul MN; AIRx Medical, Pleasanton CA; FIR Industries, Inc. Ramsey, NJ; UVLRx Therapeutics, Oldsmar, FL; Ultralux UV Inc., Lansing MI; Illumiheal & Petthera, Shoreline, WA; MB Lasertherapy, Houston, TX; ARRC LED, San Clemente, CA; Varuna Biomedical Corp. Incline Village, NV; Niraxx Light Therapeutics, Inc., Boston, MA. Consulting; Lexington Int, Boca Raton, FL; USHIO Corp, Japan; Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany; Philips Electronics Nederland B.V. Eindhoven, Netherlands; Johnson & Johnson Inc., Philadelphia, PA; Sanofi-Aventis Deutschland GmbH, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. 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name="Afrique du Sud"><noRegion><name sortKey="Hamblin, Michael R" sort="Hamblin, Michael R" uniqKey="Hamblin M" first="Michael R" last="Hamblin">Michael R. 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